Felix Romuliana — the "royal city" — is an imperial residence built within the territory of the Roman Empire at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century AD. The initiator of its construction was one of the members of the tetrarchy rulers, Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus.

Today, only the fortress walls, remains of defensive fortifications, entrance arches, foundations and mosaic floor coverings of palaces and temples, parts of columns, bas-reliefs and monuments, and remnants of hydraulic structures of this once truly magnificent architectural creation are available for viewing and study. Meanwhile, most of the archaeological finds here have made an invaluable contribution to world historical science.

It so happened that the "royal city," so well hidden from prying eyes that its walls become visible only at the very last stretch of the path, turned out to be at the intersection of a number of very important events and historical trends. This means that, step by step, by analyzing the facts and evidence of Felix Romuliana, one can literally "bring history to life." This is precisely why there is enormous interest in the monument from scholarly circles and organizations connected with cultural heritage preservation. Felix Romuliana is located in the settlement of Gamzigrad, 12 kilometers from the city of Zaječar in Serbia.

Thus, the Felix Romuliana complex was built at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries AD (nowadays this period is called Late Antiquity or the Late Roman Empire) by the order of one of the tetrarchs of the Sacred Roman Empire, Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus.

The "rule of four" (tetrarchy) was introduced by Emperor Diocletian because the principle of hereditary succession in the Roman Empire was becoming increasingly blurred, which led to abuses and weakened state power. The imperial throne ceased to be the decisive authority. Naturally, this created inconveniences and ceased to satisfy the rulers, particularly Diocletian, who became emperor in 284 AD, having been promoted from the military ranks.

By that time, the territory of the Roman Empire was vast. It is easiest to visualize it as a thick, luscious piece of land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea on all sides and including lands diagonally from Britain to Egypt.

For ease of governance and to strengthen the empire’s borders, Diocletian divided the empire into 4 regions (prefectures), each headed by its own emperor. This was not a breakup into four states but a division of territory into zones of influence. From this moment, Rome was only nominally considered the capital of the Sacred Roman Empire.

Power was distributed as follows:

Diocletian ruled the Eastern region (northwest of Asia Minor, capital Nicomedia (now Izmir)), Galerius ruled the Illyricum region (the Balkans, western part of Asia Minor, capital Sirmium (Serbian Mitrovica) and/or Thessaloniki), Maximian ruled the Italy region (territory of Italy and the northern coast of Africa, capital Mediolanum (now Milan)),

Constantius Chlorus ruled the Gaul region (territory of Spain, France, Britain, capital Augusta Treverorum (now Trier)).

The tetrarchy was organized according to specific rules:

The two senior rulers bore the title Augustus (supreme ruler). The Augusti in the first tetrarchy were Diocletian and Maximian. The other two rulers were called Caesars (junior co-rulers). The Caesars in the first tetrarchy were Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. The supreme rulers were supposed to abdicate after 20 years, transferring the Caesars to the status of Augusti. New Caesars were to be appointed to assist the new Augusti.

To strengthen the emperors’ positions, special emphasis was placed on their divine origin at this time. Thus, Diocletian took the title Jovius (son of Jupiter), and Maximian — Herculius (son of Hercules). All four rulers were considered members of one family — the family of the supreme god Jupiter.

Moreover, intra-family ties became very important. For example, Galerius, having left his first wife, married Valeria, the daughter of Diocletian. Constantius married Theodora, the stepdaughter of Maximian.

In fact, all four rulers came from humble origins. Having risen to power through military achievements, they did everything to strengthen not only their own influence but the authority of power as a whole. By equating themselves with gods, they vigorously elevated the rulers’ authority and the ability to effectively govern the vast empire.

All this happened against the backdrop of the spreading Christianity, which added another dimension to these processes.

The story of the discovery of Felix Romuliana is as follows.

The settlement of Gamzigrad (territory of present-day Serbia) was considered a mysterious "white spot" in history, hiding one of the most beautiful structures of the Roman Empire era. Many approached this purely utilitarianly, trying to dig up ancient gold.

Between 1860 and 1864, Felix Kanitz, based on profound research, created drawings and sketches, hoping to find one of the most beautiful buildings of imperial Rome. But soon the excitement subsided, and until the mid-20th century, scholars adhered to the hypothesis that this site was no more than a well-fortified military camp (castrum).

Only systematic archaeological research, which began in 1953, made it possible to confirm that the ruins here belonged to one of the most magnificent structures in Europe from the Roman Empire era.

A key moment in the research was 1984, which allowed solving the main mystery of the archaeological site. In the southwestern part, in one of the buildings with mosaic floors and painted walls, an archivolt (part of the outer decoration of an arch) made of tuff was found, on which was carved: FELIX ROMULIANA. This inscription finally allowed the confident attribution of the site to the category of Roman palace architecture (to which, for example, the Palace of Diocletian in Split belongs). At last, along with written sources, the archaeological finds spoke eloquently.

Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus conceived the construction of Felix Romuliana not only to spend the remainder of his life there in well-deserved rest but also as a kind of ideological act. Yes, it was a place near his homeland, and it was meant to become the final refuge not only for Galerius but also for his mother Romuliana.

The name of the residence consists of two words. The etymology, in a first approximation, is as follows: Romuliana — the name of Galerius’s mother. Felix — a word used exclusively in relation to gods and indicating glory, prosperity, and fertility, but primarily — holiness.

It is precisely the word "Felix" that allows the conclusion that this is not the house, palace, or villa of Romuliana, but a certain sacred place.

All the relief decorative elements reflect the quality of holiness that the architectural complex’s name carries. Ivy leaves, laurel wreaths, peacocks are symbols of immortality, and their purpose is one — to immortalize the name of the charismatic ruler and his mother, to emphasize their superhuman qualities. The construction was part of Galerius’s political, ideological, and religious program.

The uniqueness of Felix Romuliana lies in the fact that historically this place was the last in the world where Roman emperors were worshipped as gods. And the key act of this worship was the posthumous symbolic cremation of Emperor Galerius, the burning of a wax figure, and the release of an eagle into the sky, symbolizing his transition to the world of gods.

In front of the great temple in 1989, remains of a colossal marble statue of Jupiter holding an eagle in his hand were found. Most likely, it once stood inside the temple and was the centerpiece of the entire structure.

Moreover, further finds (including the "porphyry head" with a laurel wreath of the statue of Galerius himself) showed that here was embodied in stone and marble a huge complex that, through mythological symbols and allusions, justified divine origin and depicted in all heroic and mysteriously meaningful details the life path of the emperor-god.

Since Diocletian proclaimed himself the representative of Jupiter on earth, by accepting the title of Caesar, Galerius thereby entered the family of Jupiter, becoming the son of the supreme god. Thus, the statue of Jupiter was not just an image of a god but the image of the progenitor of the rulers who were members of the tetrarchy.

The relief medallions that adorned the pilasters of the "younger" defensive wall (which existed alongside the "older," outer one) near the central eastern gates are very informative (photo on the left).

They are grouped to show the hierarchy within the "family" of Jupiter. Each medallion depicts a pair of rulers, with the left position considered more honorable than the right. In the medallion at the base of the standard, both figures are dressed in simple togas and mantles, while the figures in the central and upper medallions wear mantles fastened on the shoulder with a precious clasp.

It can be confidently said that the medallion at the base of the standard depicts the Augusti who abdicated in 305: Diocletian on the left and Maximian Herculius on the right. The other two medallions depict the reigning Augusti and Caesars: Galerius on the left and Maximinus Daia on the right, as well as Constantius Chlorus on the left and Severus on the right. This structure allows establishing the exact date of the images’ creation — 306 or 307 AD.

The composition clearly reflects the idea on which the tetrarchy is based — absolute harmony and closeness among the rulers, similarity of their faces and fates, and the gradual ascent of each from Caesar through Augustus to senior Augustus and god.

Besides the depiction of the tetrarchy members, the portal of the main gates of the ancient Roman city shows scenes from the afterlife as a kind of apotheosis, the pinnacle of the life path. Thus, on archivolts, consoles, pilasters, and parapet slabs, grapevine and ivy, branches of laurel and walnut, clusters of wine berries, and peacocks are depicted. Mosaics and sculptures often repeat themes from the lives of Dionysus, Hercules, and Asclepius.

The choice of these gods is not accidental, as each of them descends from the union of a mortal and a deity (Dionysus and Hercules are children of Zeus and mortal women, Asclepius is the son of Apollo and a mortal woman). Each accomplished difficult tasks on the path of saving humanity and was subsequently deified. The most frequent images are of the god Dionysus, and there are several reasons for this.

Galerius likened his great victory in 297 over the Persian king Narseh to Dionysus’s victorious campaign in India. Numerous Dionysus motifs are also present in the ensemble of Galerius’s Thessaloniki palace. They show that Dionysus was a kind of model for Galerius in creating the myth about himself. The attitude toward his mother, Romuliana, was also possibly built with regard to the fact that Dionysus surrounded his mortal mother Semele with respect, exalted her, and achieved her acceptance into the pantheon of gods.

Before us is a vivid example of traditional Roman Empire architecture. A distinctive feature of this ensemble is the combination of ceremonial and memorial elements — which corresponds to the purpose of its creation, as mentioned earlier.

The concept of Felix Romuliana implies binarity, which is very clearly traced in the analysis of the architectural ensemble.

For security, two lines of fortifications were built — the "younger," which included 20 watchtowers, and the "older."

The complex’s territory is clearly divided into two parts.

The ceremonial entrance was through a double arch. A similar arch decorated the second entrance, located directly opposite the main one.

To the left of the central entrance was the "ordinary" entrance. Through it, visitors entered the half of the complex where they were supposed to prepare for a meeting with the ruler or other high authorities.

The two main objects, to which all others are subordinate, are two richly decorated temples, large and small, with altars for sacrificial animals.

Additionally, on the complex’s territory, remains of palaces with galleries, a fountain, numerous columns, and marble floors with mosaic elements, baths with a water supply system (using tin pipes), sewage, and heated floors, wells, and many other buildings were found. The complex covers 6.5 hectares. Excavations and research continue constantly, with specialists from various countries working here.

In 2007, the site was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under two criteria:

·      The site is unique or at least exceptional for a cultural tradition or civilization that exists to this day or has disappeared.

·      The site is an outstanding example of a construction, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape illustrating a significant period in human history.

Most likely, the large-scale construction and use of such colossal details as columns made of Egyptian marble were possible because there was a waterway on the side of the central entrance — a river that led through the Timok and Danube to the Black Sea. Now, after 17 centuries, only a small stream remains in the river’s place, which, of course, is no longer navigable. The fact that the water balance has changed over this time is also confirmed by the discovery of three main wells on the territory of Felix Romuliana, which retained water, i.e., access to aquifers, until the earthquake in Romania in 1977.

From the very beginning of the research, it was established that the remains of buildings are not only inside the fortress walls but also outside. In particular, archaeologists became interested in the structures on the Magura mountain ridge, which is located opposite the eastern gates about a kilometer from Felix Romuliana.

Besides excellent fortification properties (the mountain ridge allowed control over the surroundings and at the same time protected from prying eyes), the peculiarity of Magura was that it had long been revered as a sacred place, a holy mountain.

It soon became clear that Romula and Galerius were buried as gods right here, on its summit.

It should be noted that the site of Felix Romuliana’s construction was not chosen by chance. In fact, there is a natural amphitheater here, and the power and beauty of this place attracted people from ancient times. For example, archaeological objects from the Bronze and Iron Ages were found during excavations in the northern part of the site, and urns with burials from the early Iron Age were discovered on Magura mountain.

The path to the royal city passed through the saddle of Magura, and at that highest point, from which the city opens fully to view, traces of monumental gates with four entrances — a tetrapylon — were found.

Here was a kind of crossroads. A beaten path from east to west led to the main Eastern gates of the fortress city Felix Romuliana, and from north to south, a road led to the summit of Magura mountain, where in the 1990s two giant burial mounds and remains of two mausoleums were found. Despite severe destruction and abundant vegetation, these objects were always clearly visible from the royal chambers (where, most likely, numerous spectators of the funeral mystery were located).

Thus, Felix Romuliana represents a complex sacred-memorial monument consisting of a 6.5-hectare area surrounded by defensive structures with palaces, temples, monuments, and auxiliary buildings, as well as a tetrapylon and a ritual burial site.

In conclusion, it is worth listing historical facts that mark the legacy left in history by Emperor Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus.

Being a commoner (in youth — a herdsman, which gave him the name Galerius), he managed to rise through his military successes and become a ruler.

He was directly involved in the change of government forms of the Sacred Roman Empire, i.e., the transition from principate to dominion. Moreover, he became a member of the first tetrarchy with its idea of symmetry, sacred balance, and harmony brought by members of the divine family from heaven to earth, and went the entire path from Caesar through junior Augustus to senior Augustus, effectively becoming the main political figure of that time. Upon his death, he was the last Roman emperor worshipped as a god.

In 297, he won a victory over the Persians led by King Narseh, and this victory was so brilliant that he earned the fame of the new (other) Romulus (Alterus Romulas) and the new Alexander the Great (Alexander redivivus). Rumors circulated that his mother conceived Galerius with the god of war Mars.

He triumphantly marched through Armenia and Persia, capturing the latter’s capital and royal harem. The Persian king was forced to enter negotiations, as a result of which Persia and the Roman Empire recognized each other as great powers, and Rome’s influence significantly expanded. Gaius Galerius brought the country enormous wealth, new lands, and a road to Mesopotamia. His victory is immortalized in monumental buildings still visible in the city of Thessaloniki, where a great celebration dedicated to him took place in 303.

Gaius Galerius skillfully managed public opinion and, based on this victory, created the image of a ruler of cosmic scale.

There is evidence that Galerius was the co-author, and possibly the author, of Diocletian’s edicts on the persecution of Christians. At least, it concerns the fourth, the harshest edict, dated 304, which sentenced to cruel death all who refused to participate in pagan rites. Most likely, his position was connected not only with the fact that he was raised in a pagan environment, and his mother was a well-known figure among pagans. These edicts aimed to eradicate everything that could affect the possibility of proclaiming oneself a god, and the growing influence of Christianity was a serious obstacle.

Among the Christian saints who suffered at that time were Saint George the Victorious, Saint Martyr Agapius and seven martyrs with him, Saint Sebastian, Cyprian and Justina, Andrew Stratelates and his soldiers, Cosmas and Damian of Arabia, Eustratius and Eugene, and many, many others.

It is surprising that despite all this, his wife was a Christian.

Galerius managed to prepare everything to retire in an atmosphere of reverence and awe. The grand construction of Felix Romuliana was quickly completed, and a place for future ritual burial was prepared. Between 303 and 305, his mother was buried there with honors.

This place was planned as a pilgrimage site and served as a kind of spiritual testament to his subjects. Apparently, Galerius wanted to extend his influence on people’s minds even after death to strengthen the Sacred Roman Empire.

Galerius himself planned to retire after 20 years of rule as Augustus and was carefully preparing for this event. But suddenly, in 311, he was struck by a terrible illness (presumably prostate cancer), which was so severe that doctors refused to treat him, avoiding the incredible stench that accompanied it. Many who attempted to treat the emperor lost their lives due to complete helplessness against the overwhelming affliction.

Fearing that this was divine retribution for cruelty toward Christians, Gaius Valerius did everything to repeal the edicts aimed at the bloody eradication of Christianity. Despite these desperate actions, he soon died and was buried with honors as a god, a member of the great Jupiter’s family.

The decline of Felix Romuliana happened as quickly as its rise.

Between 311 and 313, the tetrarchy institution ceased to correspond to its original design; disputes began, and most contenders for positions in the system were in irreconcilable conflict. By 313, the tetrarchy effectively ceased to exist, although only in 324 did Constantine proclaim himself the sole Augustus.

The prefix Felix in the name of the once sacred structure simply lost its meaning, and soon the settlement of Romuliana came to be perceived as a military camp and later as an insignificant settlement.

Sources:

https://44serbia.ru/drevniy-rimskiy-gorod-feliks-romuliana-chast-1/

https://44serbia.ru/drevniy-rimskiy-gorod-feliks-romuliana-felix-romuliana-chast-2/

Author: Svetlana Randjelović