The fortified port city of Sumhuram, built in the Khor Rori area, is the most important pre-Islamic settlement in the Dhofar province. It was founded in the third century BCE as an outpost of the Hadramaut kingdom. The fortress at this site was constructed at the end of the 1st century BCE by Llad Yalut, king of Hadramant, and became an important trading point for merchants across the Arabian Sea as well as the Indian Ocean. Inscriptions report that the city of Sumhuram was founded by royal initiative and settled by emigrants from Hadramaut. The Dhofar region was a primary source of frankincense in ancient times, and it seems likely that the establishment of the settlement by Hadramaut was partly motivated by the desire to control the production of this valuable commodity. Khor Rori has been preliminarily identified as the location of Moscha Limen (in ancient Greek: Μόσχα λιμήν, probably meaning “harbor of young shoots (μόσχος)” referring to possible mangrove vegetation in the past), or “harbor of musk, perfumes.” The name appeared in the anonymous Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the 1st century CE and in Ptolemy’s Geography in the following century. It has also been identified with Abyssapolis or Abyssapolis in Ptolemy; this name was first associated with a chasm, most likely the Wadi Darbat waterfall, but may be linked to the Abyssinian people. The existence of an ancient port city in this area was suggested by 19th-century Western geographers based on classical and Arabic sources. In the 1890s, the location was indicated by Eduard Glaser.

It is known that trade caravans traveled from here to Shabwa, Marib, Al-Batru, and even reached the civilizations of Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the eastern Indus valley, and China. The Periplus, a Greek work from the 1st century CE, described Sumhuram under the Greek name Moscha Limen — “It stands out as an important center of trade.” Frankincense was in great demand in the ancient world, especially in Rome, where it was used as incense for temples. Indeed, Sumhuram was widely known in ancient times, and mentions of the port appear in Greek and Arabic historical records.

After the decline of the Hadramaut kingdom, Sumhuram came under the influence of the Himyar kingdom, as evidenced by Himyarite coins found there. However, over centuries, due to changes in the coastline, the port of Sumhuram gradually silted up because of the formation of a sandbar blocking the river mouth, and trade shifted to other areas. It was finally abandoned in the 5th century CE.

An interesting feature of Sumhuram is the gates themselves. The monumental gates of Sumhuram open on the northern side of the city wall facing the plain, and this was an impressive defensive structure, as it was steep, and visitors had to pass through three consecutive wooden doors. A zigzag path leads into the city, but just before the entrance on the left side is an inscription on stone, now protected by glass, in South Arabian script, describing the construction of the city. Visitors must pass through three passages to enter the city. A small door, a postern, is located on the eastern side of the gate complex.

The city consists of different parts, such as a residential area with many houses along the streets. The most common type of house in Sumhuram has a central corridor with two or three rooms on the sides, which are used for everyday living. On the other hand, there are also rooms for frankincense production — storerooms. Although today we see the foundations of most of these rooms, experts note that houses in Sumhuram could have had several floors. The upper floors were living quarters, and the lower floors often served as workshops or storage for craftsmen. The most impressive structure in this area is the building protecting a 25-meter-deep well.

Another intriguing element is the temple complex. According to an expert, “the main temple in the western part of the city is dedicated to the moon god named Sin. Two staircases led to the temple entrance. Its main room was divided into three naves by two rows of columns. A washing area and public toilets adjoined the temple. There is also a small sanctuary in Sumhuram. However, another temple is located outside the city, near the entrance to the lagoon.”

The huge structure located southeast of the Sin temple is one of the oldest and most impressive buildings in the city of Sumhuram.

The building was used as a large food warehouse, experts on site note. It was probably intended not for residents but for sailors who docked at the port. Remains inside the building show the presence of meat from various animals in the warehouse, including camels, cattle, sheep, and large fish. This distinguished it from the daily diet of Sumhuram’s inhabitants, which mainly consisted of shells, small fish, and goats. On its northern wall are carved scenes depicting camels and ibexes.

Another important area of Sumhuram, the commercial district — the market, was located in the southeastern part of the city and was a large rectangular square. Along the northern and southern sides of this square, archaeologists excavated 11 long rectangular rooms — four on the south and seven on the north. They were used to store frankincense and other goods. A small doorway in the eastern city wall connected the market with the port.

A large number of iron and bronze items found in the local smithy suggest that the city was also a very important center of internal trade with southeastern Arabia and the northern coast of Oman, which was rich in copper.

In tourist literature, Sumhuram is sometimes promoted as the summer palace of the Queen of Sheba, the legendary biblical ruler of the kingdom of Saba, who lived in the 10th century BCE. However, this contradicts archaeological evidence.

Some members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that Khor Rori is the “Land of Abundance” where Nephi from the Book of Mormon stopped during his travels from Jerusalem.

But, of course, the fortress city of Sumhuram is not all there is, as the reconstruction of the archaeological park details numerous structures and settlements at this site from the Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, Iron Ages to the Middle Ages. Human presence on the summit of Inkitat, the eastern cliff facing Sumhuram, dates back to the Paleolithic period (60,000 years ago). There is also evidence relating to the late Neolithic, Bronze, Iron Ages, and the Middle Ages.

Sources:

Alessandra Avanzini: Notes for a History of Sumhuram and a new Inscription of Yashhurʾil